Rocky Talchabhadel Researcher, Kyoto University Board Member, S4W-Nepal
The word “Monsoon” comes from the Arabic word “mausim” which translates directly to ‘season’ in English. The monsoon season in Nepal and other parts of Central and Southeast Asia is characterized by a large seasonal shift in wind flow and direction accompanied by a dramatic increase in precipitation. Monsoon can be both boon and bane for inhabitants of this region. Extreme (heavy) precipitation during the monsoon season often results in major water-induced hazards such as floods, landslides, and debris flow. However, the monsoon season is equally important for agriculture and the economy. Lower than average monsoon precipitation, or even simply a later than average start date to the monsoon season, can have a disastrous impact on the nearly 3/4th of the population in Nepal that is dependent on agriculture. The nature of the monsoon precipitation – its amount, temporal variability, intensity, frequency of occurrence, and spatial variation is a major factor affecting agricultural potential. In Nepal between 1968 and the present, the average start and end dates for the summer monsoon are June 10th and September 23rd, respectively. Figure 1 shows the start and end dates, and average duration, during this period.
Figure 1: Monsoon onset (blue squares) and withdrawal (orange circles) and average onset and withdrawal (gray shaded area).
The country receives more than 80% of its annual precipitation during the monsoon season (Shrestha, 2000). Rice is a major food staple in Nepal. The planting of rice normally begins in early May in the hills and in June in the Tarai, the country’s food basket. The monsoon precipitation is directly linked with the growth of this rice crop and the country’s agriculture and in turn, the economy. This year (A.D. 2020) monsoon began in Nepal on the 12th of June. The monsoon season is characterized by not continuous but continual rain for a few days separated by rainless intervals. The long term temporal record of monsoon onset and withdrawal (Figure 1) shows a delayed monsoon withdrawal coupled with either altered or unchanged monsoon onset. The monsoon season is, in general, found to be longer in recent times. On average, six or seven monsoon depressions* (twice per month) move in every year, each corresponding to a period of about 17 days (Nayava, 1980). When the monsoon trough (a large depression) moves closer towards the foothills of Nepal (which we call active break-monsoon), heavy precipitation-related extreme events usually occur in parts, or across the whole, of Nepal. During such extreme precipitation events, floods (river floods, flash floods, urban floods) are likely to occur. The timing of flood/inundation and early warning mechanisms are crucial for effective mitigation of flood risks, along with mapping and understanding of flood-prone areas, which are, to some extent, predictable.
However, landslides and debris flow can sometimes even occur in unexpected areas. A recent example of a landslide followed by a debris flow at Kushma municipality, Parbat on June 13, 2020 highlights this point. The terrain, which never experienced a landslide before, experienced this, followed by a debris flow that was a devastating event affecting lives and property. Figure 2 shows a preliminary assessment of cumulative precipitation derived from hourly precipitation data of a satellite-based product, PERSIANN CCS (spatial resolution, 4 km) and the spatial location of landslide/debris flow before and after the event using Planet Imagery (spatial resolution, 3 m).
Even a single event with intense precipitation for a short period can bring urban inundation, land/mudslides, or flash flooding. Therefore, it is high time to map potential hazards and prepare for worst-case scenarios. You can’t manage what you don’t measure. Citizen-science based precipitation measurements can be used as a reference to calibrate and correct satellite-based precipitation estimates. Let’s measure.
Figure 2: Kushma municipality, Parbat landslide, and resulting debris flow.
Reference:
Nayava JL. 1980. Rainfall in Nepal. The Himalayan Review. Nepal Geological Society, 12.
Shrestha ML. 2000. Interannual variation of summer monsoon rainfall over Nepal and its relation to Southern Oscillation Index. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 75: 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s007030070012.
*Note: Monsoon depression: a depression that forms within the locations of relatively minimum sea level pressure in a monsoon region.
Young Researchers’ Circle Announcement & Activities
The Young Researchers’ Circle (YRC) is a voluntary, independent, collaborative, non-profit circle of young researchers/students that was founded in Spring 2020 by S4W-Nepal with an aim to promote and support citizen science-based water resource monitoring and management in the Kathmandu Valley and other parts of Nepal. The motto and objective of YRC is “Rejuvenating research among young aspiring minds” and YRC seeks to accomplish this via events, outreach programs, involvement in S4W-Nepal’s activities, and various networking opportunities.
The current ongoing activities of YRC include participation in S4W-Nepal’s Monsoon Expedition 2020, publication of a bi-monthly newsletter and a weekly Environmental News Refresher[1], and analysis of S4W-Nepal’s data. YRC plays a crucial role in the Monsoon Expedition in building a strong network of Citizen Scientists throughout the Kathmandu Valley (and other parts of Nepal) and motivates them to get involved in water-related research activities. YRC intends to build a good relationship between different colleges of Nepal, mobilize graduate-level students in water-related research, and help develop their skillset for the design, implementation, completion, and communication of research projects.
To date, YRC has published its first issue of the bimonthly newsletter ‘Young Researchers’ and six issues of the weekly Environment News Refresher. YRC has also conducted two online trainings, one on Open Data Kit (ODK) and one on ArcGIS, for the interested members of Young Researchers’ Circle for building their research skillset. Furthermore, YRC celebrated World Environment Day on June 5th by organizing an article writing competition among YRC members on the topic “Water as a whole to sustain biodiversity”. Finally, YRC has also conducted a video campaign in order to promote and conserve biodiversity.
In the near future, YRC plans to conduct webinars, facilitate managing and supporting conferences/events conducted by water-related organizations, become involved in various research activities and publications, and more. The YRC initiative has thus far been successful, and these new ideas will hopefully allow for its continued success and growth!
Sagar Gosai has been an active citizen scientist with S4W-Nepal for a long time and recently became vice-secretary of the Young Researchers’ Circle. Let’s hear a little bit from him about his experience as a citizen scientist and with S4W-Nepal.
Citizen Scientist’s Story
Namaste, I am Sagar Gosai. I am a third-year bachelor’s student studying Environmental Science at Khwopa College, Bhaktapur. I am an enthusiastic youth with a keen interest in the field of drinking water quality and its management. I was motivated and inspired to be a citizen scientist and got involved with S4W-Nepal through an outreach program conducted at my college. I have been actively collecting daily precipitation data for more than two years now, and have also been collecting daily evaporation data for the past six months.
S4W-Nepal has developed a low-cost gauge (each costs about $1.50 for materials and construction) to record these measurements, and these gauges are initially made available to citizen scientists by the organization for free. Considering the plastic pollution issues happening both locally and globally, I really appreciate the idea of reusing and repurposing plastic water bottles for measurement as well as the cost-effective data transmission methods through mobile application Open Data Kit (ODK) Collect. S4W-Nepal has made me aware of the importance of data collection and also helped me develop the capability to easily communicate with other fellow citizen scientists and local people about the data collection procedures and the importance of the data. I am very happy to be a part of S4W-Nepal and excited and eager to know how the data collected are being used in making wise water resource management decisions.
[1] The weekly Environmental News Refresher provides an overview of local, national, and international environmental news stories with some commentary.
The current COVID-19 pandemic and global shutdown have brought massive distress to the world in various ways. In our present situation, many people are unable to go to work, (or worse) have lost their jobs, children can’t go to school, and people are no longer allowed to freely socialize. On a global level, economy has drastically shrunk; on a personal level, some people are suffering mental breakdowns, and more. Everything is in chaos. Despite the prolonged health and socio-economic crisis, the lockdown has strangely enough presented an opportunity in some areas of science. People’s engagement in citizen science projects, resulting from more time away from others or at home, has been one of the small silver linings and unique opportunities of the pandemic for the scientific community.
Over the past couple of years, the term ‘citizen science’ has become much more common. The approach of citizen science – where ordinary citizens and scientists work together in scientific endeavors – generates new scientific knowledge and has the potential to collect valuable scientific data on a large scale. Citizen scientists can accomplish work on a scale that would be impossible for only trained scientists to achieve. Despite the pandemic situation, worldwide, numerous researchers have started scientific collaborations online, engaging citizens to participate in various citizen science projects. The projects range from recording species/biodiversity observed in our own backyards to bird counts to monitoring precipitation through rain gauges to studying outer space, all leading to new scientific discoveries and better understanding of the world (or galaxy!) we live in.
Initiatives by Smartphones4Water Nepal (S4W-Nepal)
Here at S4W-Nepal, we have been practicing and implementing this citizen science approach for the past three years for hydro-meteorological data collection. One of the programs of S4W-Nepal that we’ve implemented every year since our establishment is the Monsoon Expedition to track rainfall in Nepal during the summer monsoon. In the 2020 Monsoon Expedition, we aim to generate consistent, accurate rainfall data and provide the gathered information to the interested stakeholders. Our objective for this year was to expand our research outside of the Kathmandu Valley, with a focus on Kathmandu, Pokhara, Hetauda, Dharan, Biratnagar, and Chitwan. However, due to strict lockdown measures and travel restrictions, we were unable to conduct and facilitate the outreaches and programs that we had planned. Our detailed plan for the monsoon expedition 2020 and our past approaches are briefly explained here.
Amidst the pandemic, we were still able to recruit about 50 citizen scientists through social media platforms, and our citizen scientists took the responsibility to make their rain gauge to track the rainfall in their area. We provided them with instructions on rain gauge construction, data collection, and data submission along with follow up messages and calls on a timely basis. We also encourage questions and provide prompt feedback and responses to any queries from citizen scientists.
Figure 1: Citizen Scientists in Action – rain gauge preparation and rainfall monitoring by two S4W-Nepal volunteers.
Figure 2: Precipitation stations all across Nepal with a major focus on the Kathmandu Valley from June 2020.
The driving factors for the involvement of citizen scientists in scientific projects include motivation to create a positive impact, time availability, personal or professional interest, and even boredom for those with lots of free time. To be a citizen scientist for S4W-Nepal, all you need is a smartphone with GPS capabilities and a camera and a bit of enthusiasm.
When the global situation normalizes in the post-pandemic period, will the popularity of citizen science and the number of projects gradually decline, or will it continue to grow? It is a worldwide concern for scientists, and we don’t know the answer. However, with the continuing emergence of new technologies and concepts, the wave of citizen science has also continued to rise in Nepal with constant support from several NGOs, INGOs, research institutions, and government. As a consequence, open knowledge sharing platforms between citizen scientists, scientific communities, experts, governmental bodies, and policymakers are continuing to develop and we hope that they will reach new heights shortly. We are excited to be a part of the process and along for the ride, and we hope you’ll consider joining us as a citizen scientist!
Rapid population growth, urban sprawl, and increasing developmental activities are leading to growing freshwater demands in the Kathmandu Valley. The limited availability of surface water has increased the people’s dependence on groundwater resources. Groundwater is an important source of drinking water in the Kathmandu Valley, contributing to roughly 50-70% of the total water supply (Chapagain et al., 2009). Unfortunately, the increasing extractions of groundwater have led to an abrupt decline in groundwater levels and also deterioration of groundwater quality. The variations in water quality are indicated by its physical, chemical and biological conditions, which are directly influenced by anthropogenic activities. These activities include introduction of untreated/partially treated wastewater, and excessive use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers in agriculture. The majority of people in Bhaktapur municipality in the Kathmandu Valley rely on groundwater for everyday domestic uses, but the degradation of groundwater quality has put the sustainability of groundwater resources under severe threat. Therefore, monitoring of groundwater quality should be done regularly so that the associated risks from the pollutants can be identified, better understood, and ultimately reduced or eliminated.
Groundwater quality is a complex subject to address, and a difficult water parameter to assess and evaluate, since it needs to consider multiple physico-chemical and biological parameters. Depending on the audience, assessment, evaluation, and communication of results is sometimes best done using a single metric that presents the information in simple terms. The water quality index (WQI) is one of the most effective ways of summarizing groundwater quality as it is a representative value reflecting the combined influence of various water quality parameters. WQI reduces the complexity of water quality data and presents the information in a simple and understandable manner to policymakers and concerned citizens. For those interested in specifics, the data inputs for determining the WQI can be evaluated individually.
A study was conducted by SmartPhones4Water Nepal (S4W-Nepal) to develop a WQI value in order to assess the groundwater quality of the Bhaktapur municipality. This study was performed as a part of a young researcher-led citizen science project called SmartPhones4Water (S4W) that was focused initially in Nepal (S4W-Nepal) and is now expanding into other areas. For data collection, 25 sample wells (both public and private) were selected from the entire municipality considering the spatial coverage and the human settlements. The samples were collected during the pre-monsoon (May), monsoon (July), and post-monsoon (November) time periods of 2018.
Figure 2. Map of the study area with the locations of sample wells.
The public wells were typically open to the atmosphere, while the private wells typically had a covering. Groundwater samples were pulled up to the ground surface using a bucket and collected in 1 liter plastic bottles. The collected samples were subjected to a comprehensive analysis of 11 physico-chemical parameters including pH, electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness, total alkalinity, chloride, phosphate, ammonia, iron, and nitrate. WQI was calculated by following the weighted arithmetic index method given by Brown et al., (1972) from the parametric values obtained from the analysis of physico-chemical parameters.
Figure 3. WQI results for study area from (a) pre-monsoon, (b) monsoon, and (c) post-monsoon sampling in 2018.
The WQI is expressed as a single number, with lower numbers representing better water quality and higher numbers representing poorer water quality. Numbers less than 25 are considered excellent quality, numbers between 25 and 50 are considered good quality, numbers between 50 and 75 are considered poor quality, numbers between 75 and 100 are considered very poor quality, and numbers over 100 are considered unsuitable for human consumption.
The WQI values in Bhaktapur municipality ranged from 23.03 to 943.15; the overall groundwater quality status of Bhaktapur municipality was determined to be of poor quality. 1.33% of water samples have excellent quality, 24% have good quality, 32% have poor quality, 13.33% have very poor quality and the remaining 29.33% were unsuitable for drinking purpose. The WQI values were found to be more sensitive to the parameters including turbidity, alkalinity and ammonia. The WQI distribution of sampling wells in pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon of 2018 is presented in figure 2. The seasonal fluctuation in water quality might be because of the monsoonal water influx and the dilution effect.
The reasons for the poor water quality of wells in the Bhaktapur municipality could be the cause of a variety of issues and influences. These include septic contamination, percolation of agricultural water containing pesticides and fertilizers, construction and demolition activities, and a direct influx of rainwater in open wells. In order to address any overland contamination, cover systems and regular maintenance and cleaning of the wells is recommended. The findings from this study may serve as an important foundation and frame of reference to guide future studies on the groundwater quality of the study area and efforts to improve water quality.
The three tables below include the water quality results for each of the wells from the three sampling periods and the resulting WQI values.
Table 1: Water quality results for sample wells during pre-monsoon 2018
Sample Wells
PH
EC (μS/cm)
TDS(mg/L)
Turbidity (NTU)
Nitrate (mg/L)
Ammonia(mg/L)
Phosphate(mg/L)
Chloride(mg/L)
Iron(mg/L)
Hardness (mg/L)
Alkalinity(mg/L)
WQI
W1
6.9
459
216
21
0
0.2
0.05
31.36
0.3
128
340
63.09
W2
6.8
808
380
7
0
0.2
0.05
62.72
0.3
216
570
48.28
W3
7.1
648
305
145
10
3
0.5
39.2
0.3
192
410
312.8
W4
7.3
1282
603
204
0
3
0.2
113.7
0.3
144
290
424.14
W5
7.3
859
404
7
0
0.5
0.05
62.72
0
136
510
39.11
W6
7.3
751
353
7
0
0
0.05
47.04
0
208
210
30.25
W7
7.1
1121
527
161
0
3
0.2
90.16
0.3
160
280
343.31
W8
7.1
544
256
6
0
1.5
0.2
35.28
0
128
350
36.08
W9
7.7
712
335
7
0
3
0.2
47.04
0
144
830
58.9
W10
6.8
1487
699
2
0
0
0.05
109.8
1
136
350
62.46
W11
7.2
1344
632
42
0
3
1
0.5
0.3
304
630
136.57
W12
7.7
1023
481
12
0
1.5
0.05
0.2
0.3
216
510
64.71
W13
7.3
1231
579
25
0
3
0.5
0.5
0.3
440
270
99.64
W14
7.9
1493
702
5
0
3
0.8
0.5
0
224
230
53.52
W15
8.3
780
367
2
0
0.2
0.2
1
0
168
280
23.03
W16
7.7
546
257
17
10
1.5
0.05
0.5
0.3
72
240
63.18
W17
12
1668
784
35
100
0.5
0.5
0.5
0
168
250
116.18
W18
8.8
668
314
10
10
0.2
0.5
0
0.3
120
880
58.47
W19
8.2
1108
521
64
10
3
1
0
1
152
420
191.77
W20
8.3
1295
609
34
10
3
1
0
1
368
270
140.49
W21
9.1
1170
550
24
0
1.5
1
0.2
0
136
360
78.2
W22
9.4
921
433
10
25
1.5
1
0
0.3
120
320
63.15
W23
9.1
1319
620
25
75
1
1
0
1
152
310
121.84
W24
9
1246
586
6
75
0.5
0.8
0
0
240
340
54.87
W25
8.8
1021
480
5
10
0.5
0.05
0
1
168
570
70.48
Table 2: Water quality results for sample wells during monsoon 2018
Sample Wells
PH
EC (μS/cm)
TDS(mg/L)
Turbidity (NTU)
Nitrate (mg/L)
Ammonia(mg/L)
Phosphate(mg/L)
Chloride(mg/L)
Iron(mg/L)
Hardness (mg/L)
Alkalinity(mg/L)
WQI
W1
6.7
742
349
19
0.2
75
0.05
31.36
0
184
50
62.92
W2
7.4
1859
874
4
0.2
0
0.2
39.2
0
384
100
38.77
W3
7.2
853
401
20
1
0
0.05
90.16
0
152
90
59.25
W4
7.7
272
128
95
1.5
10
0.2
90.16
0.3
64
50
202.08
W5
7.5
753
354
3
0
75
0.2
74.48
0
184
50
34.8
W6
7.8
921
433
4
0.2
50
1
58.8
0
176
60
36.31
W7
8.3
1863
863
8
0
100
1
39.2
0
264
40
62.2
W8
8.3
1078
507
5
0
50
0.5
43.12
0
184
20
37.08
W9
8.3
1065
501
8
1.5
50
0.05
31.36
0.3
144
200
61.88
W10
9
940
442
12
0.2
75
1
35.28
0
120
50
54.99
W11
8.2
604
284
9
0.2
50
1
43.12
0
64
25
39.36
W12
8.7
1746
821
8
3
25
1
47.04
0.3
272
130
77.3
W13
8.6
1193
561
1
1
10
0.8
54.88
0
80
50
29.78
W14
8.4
1125
529
1
0
75
1
39.2
0
104
30
34.46
W15
8.7
1504
707
11
0.5
50
0.8
43.12
0.3
120
70
65.29
W16
8.9
965
454
3
0.2
75
0.8
43.12
0
136
40
38.8
W17
8.7
1257
591
4
0
50
0.8
66.64
0
176
30
39.03
W18
8.5
1023
481
32
1.5
0
0.8
54.88
1
168
70
117.73
W19
8.8
921
433
8
0
10
0.5
47.04
1
112
70
64.29
W20
8.4
944
444
2
0
25
0.2
101.92
0
136
70
27.45
W21
8.6
823
387
5
1.5
10
0.05
113.68
0
96
70
37.68
W22
8
1287
605
3
0
25
0.05
35.28
0
144
40
29.23
W23
7.9
689
324
1
0
50
0.05
62.72
0.3
128
80
34.36
W24
8.2
1078
507
20
1.5
0
0.05
70.56
0.3
96
90
73.17
W25
8.3
870
409
34
3
0
0.05
125.44
0.3
96
40
106.77
Table 3: Water quality results for sample wells during post-monsoon 2018
Sample Wells
PH
EC (μS/cm)
TDS(mg/L)
Turbidity (NTU)
Nitrate (mg/L)
Ammonia(mg/L)
Phosphate(mg/L)
Chloride(mg/L)
Iron(mg/L)
Hardness (mg/L)
Alkalinity(mg/L)
WQI
W1
7.5
444
209
19
50
3
0
39.2
0
192
300
77.38
W2
7.6
519
244
155
25
1.5
0.05
47.04
0
248
640
319.46
W3
7
568
266
74
10
3
0.05
50.96
0
256
560
177.17
W4
7.7
714
336
16
10
1.5
0.2
50.96
0
320
800
70.8
W5
8.4
246
116
9
25
3
0.5
23.52
0
144
350
54.07
W6
7.6
723
340
5
0
1
0.05
82.32
0
384
660
45.41
W7
7.9
700
329
31
75
1
1
54.88
0
128
410
97.97
W8
7.7
787
370
24
100
3
0.8
86.24
0
160
250
101.02
W9
7.5
1195
562
86
10
3
1
19.6
0
352
1590
227.14
W10
7.6
817
384
21
25
1.5
0.8
90.16
0
168
600
79.68
W11
7.7
848
399
12
25
3
0.8
109.76
0
120
800
76.33
W12
7.8
980
461
16
10
1.5
1
129.36
0
128
680
72.31
W13
7.5
919
432
1
75
3
0.8
90.16
0
176
570
62.03
W14
7.8
1163
547
58
50
1
0.8
145.04
0
160
610
154.31
W15
7.7
855
402
28
0
1.5
0.2
109.76
0
160
620
88.21
W16
7.6
638
300
25
25
1.5
0.2
58.8
0
248
450
81.6
W17
7.7
568
267
16
10
3
0.5
66.64
0
280
580
74.77
W18
6.9
1082
509
143
0
1
0
164.64
0
408
570
301.11
W19
7.5
738
347
406
10
1.5
0
98
0.3
320
460
784.08
W20
7.8
961
452
19
50
1.5
0.05
86.24
0
288
430
79.9
W21
7.7
1044
491
178
10
3
0.5
31.26
0
352
1510
391.14
W22
7.3
972
457
412
10
1.5
0.05
160.72
5
256
590
943.15
W23
7.5
910
428
46
10
1.5
0.05
74.48
0
320
1130
133.71
W24
7.8
463
218
99
10
3
0.05
43.12
0
240
660
223.76
W25
7.7
1129
531
15
10
1
0.2
196
0
352
610
72.64
References
Brown, R.M., McClelland, N.I., Deininger, R.A. and O’Connor, M.F. (1972) A water quality index—crashing the psychological barrier. Indicators of environmental quality [online]. pp. 173-182. Available from DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4684-1698-5_15 [Accessed 7th September 2019]
Chapagain, S. K., Pandey, V. P., Shrestha, S., Nakamura, T. and Kazama, F. (2009) Assessment of Deep Groundwater Quality in Kathmandu Valley Using Multivariate Statistical Techniques. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution [online]. 210(1-4), pp.277–288. Available from DOI: 10.1007/s11270-009-0249-8 [Accessed 1st September 2019]
Water is one of our most precious and indispensable commodities. Smartphones4Water (S4W)-Nepal generates the data necessary to support both water users and policymakers in making wise water management decisions. In the Kathmandu valley of Nepal, extreme population growth has led to stress on water resources; the project initiated by S4W-Nepal has the objective of collecting the data necessary to quantify these stresses so that effective solutions can be identified, developed and implemented. S4W-Nepal leverages “citizen scientists” for the measurement of different components of water (precipitation, evaporation, water level, etc.) through use of an Android smartphone application called Open Data Kit (ODK) Collect. For the measurement of precipitation and evaporation, S4W-Nepal provides a local rain gauge to the citizen scientists. This approach is rapidly scalable and cost effective in a developing country like Nepal.
We have 60+ citizen scientists taking daily precipitation measurements in different parts of the Kathmandu Valley, covering the Valley spatially. Included below is an interview with Yurisha Duwal, one of our citizen scientists taking daily precipitation and evaporation measurements. Each citizen scientist has their own story and unique perspective to share. Keep reading to learn about her experiences working as a citizen scientist with S4W-Nepal, some of her personal interests, and some of her other thoughts.
Yurisha Duwal is a bachelor’s student studying to become a pharmacist at Little Angels College of Health Science. Since she is in her final year, her daily activities are very concentrated on academics, however, she has a keen interest in and really enjoys dancing and singing. Besides that, she loves travelling to new places and has so far explored the central and eastern parts of Nepal (Janakpur, Sauraha and Chitwan) and Darjeeling and Sikkim of India. She got involved in S4W-Nepal through one of her friends and learned more about our work through our website and social media (Facebook and Instagram).
In her interview, Duwal said ‘Data is an important aspect for management of any resource! Here, in this case, it’s water!’. She believes the water-related data collected by S4W-Nepal and citizen scientists will ultimately help in sustainable water resource management in the near future. She further added, ‘I had no idea about the citizen science concept. I thought citizen scientists should come from a scientific background with good academics at first. However, being a part of S4W-Nepal, I came to understand this modern concept of citizen science and became fascinated by it.’ Being a medical student, she was not related to the water resources field academically, however, as a responsible citizen, she believes it’s her duty to be aware and take care of the environment she lives in. She added, ‘I will always be happy to contribute to the environment from my side, whether that be a small contribution like data collection or any other contribution. This is one of the key factors that drove me to become a part of S4W-Nepal’. She further encouraged her friends to become citizen scientists and become aware of the importance of data collection. Additionally, Duwal is one of only a few citizen scientists taking evaporation measurements, which we think is fantastic and really appreciate.
She believes that to accomplish or achieve any goal (in this case, sustainable water resource management), huge actions are not mandatory; small actions by many can help achieve and contribute to a better change. A lot of little things added together can turn out to be a pretty big thing. Adding this idea to the message she shares with others, she tells her fellow citizen scientists and friends that even a single measurement and data point can make a huge difference and can bring a significant change in the field of research and implementation of more sustainable management strategies. She further encourages everyone to continually collect and send data.
Nepal is a developing country where expensive technologies and environmental monitoring equipment and methods are not affordable. In such an instance, Duwal appreciates the cost-effective initiative taken by S4W-Nepal in mobilizing citizen scientists, mobile technologies and young researchers in data collection. However, she also suggests that measures to enhance the data collection techniques looking forward into the implementation of sustainable management strategies will be an interesting project and thing to think of. Since thus far, S4W-Nepal has mostly focused on the Kathmandu Valley, she added that this interesting and fascinating concept should be introduced all over the rest of Nepal too.
Each day, Yurisha Duwal uses an Android application called Open Data Kit (ODK) collect to record rainfall and evaporation. These measurements are recorded using a locally made inexpensive gauge (each gauge costs about $1.50 USD, learn how to make your own here). Each gauge is provided to citizen scientists by S4W-Nepal for free.
S4W = young researchers + citizen scientists + mobile technology. Citizen science refers to collaborations between scientists and general people to fill important scientific data gaps and expand the horizon of scientific data collection. S4W-Nepal uses an Android application called Open Data Kit (ODK) for data collection with the help of citizen scientists. The advanced mobile technology with good GPS and camera have improved the reliability and accuracy of citizen science observations. The citizen science approach is cost effective and rapidly scalable.
The growing imbalance between water demand and supply has stressed the quality and quantity of the water resources in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal. Haphazard urbanization along with a lack of integrated land use planning has both affected surface water and restricted the recharge potential of the underlying groundwater resources. Precipitation is the only way of recharging surface and groundwater sources (including streams, springs, wells and stone spouts), and the Valley receives 80% of its total rainfall during monsoon (i.e. from June to September). If you’re not sure what a stone spout is, you should read one of our older stories here! Roughly two-thirds of the cultivable land in Nepal is rainfed rather than irrigated, so uneven and erratic rainfall patterns also severely affect the agricultural productivity of the country (Malla, 2008). There is a large issue to be addressed here. However, for effective planning and management of these water resources, the critical first step is that the problem needs to be characterized and better understood. Then, all relevant information should be forwarded to concerned stakeholders and decision makers for responsible action and wise management decisions.
One of S4W-Nepal’s major objectives is generating good spatio-temporal hydro-meteorological data (e.g. when and where is water moving, and how much, and of what quality) as part of the critical first step mentioned above; these data are necessary to support wise water management decisions. To this end, S4W-Nepal has launched the Monsoon Expedition 2019 with a slogan “Count the drops, before it stops!”. For data generation, S4W-Nepal leverages the power of young researchers, citizen science, and mobile technology. We use an Android smartphone application called Open Data Kit (ODK) Collect to measure different components of water (e.g. precipitation, water flow, water quality, etc.) with the help of citizen scientists (CS). Advances in mobile technology through increased GPS accuracy and high-resolution cameras have undoubtedly improved the accuracy and reliability of citizen scientists’ observations. For measuring precipitation of the Valley, S4W-Nepal uses a local rain gauge constructed of readily available repurposed materials costing less than a dollar and we provide it to CS for free. This approach is both lower in cost and more rapidly scalable than other traditional methods of measuring precipitation. This story will focus on various aspects of our Monsoon Expedition 2019. It is currently ongoing, and we hope you enjoy this little glimpse into what we do 🙂
Aspects of Monsoon Expedition 2019
Citizen Scientist Recruitment
Almost all CS are recruited by one of three methods: through personal contacts and word-of-mouth, through outreach programmes and through social media (using Google Forms). We’ll describe the outreach programmes in more detail. As a part of the monsoon expedition this year, S4W-Nepal conducted two outreaches in the Valley leading up to the monsoon season for Bachelor’s level and graduate level university students. The group from one of these outreaches is pictured below in Figure 1. The main purpose of these was to raise awareness among university students about current water-related issues, possible management measures and the importance of data for informing management decisions. The outreach programmes have been a good opportunity to share our ongoing research and what we’ve learned through the process. Finally, we also provide a platform for all who attend the outreach programmes to participate in data collection. This year we have dozens of Nepali and foreign undergraduate and graduate students involved as volunteers and interns discussing water-related issues that the Valley currently faces and hopefully assisting in a step towards better water management.
Figure 1: Outreach program at Kantipur Engineering College (KEC) in May, 2019; Bachelor’s level engineering students participated
Citizen Scientist Motivation
Motivation is one of the most important driving factors for CS; it is critical for keeping their interest alive and a high continuation rate in data collection. Some of the actions we take to help motivate CS include sending weekly acknowledgement texts to CS every Friday that encourage them and show the incredible positive impact they can have just through data collection. Social media has also been a good medium for the spread of news and necessary information to our targeted audience. We often disseminate data collected and sent in by our CS through social media, whether it is regarding a major rainfall event or any campaign findings.
Citizen Scientist Follow Up
This year during Monsoon Expedition 2019, we have the goal of conducting immediate follow-up calls to CS after quality control of their data to reduce the repetition of mistakes (if any) and also to thank and encourage them for taking regular measurements. Also, we are planning to do bi-weekly or weekly follow up with CS if there is any sort of discontinuation in the data set and perform field visits if necessary in urgent cases.
Spatial distribution of Precipitation CS in the Valley in 2019
As of the beginning of June 2019, about 60 CS were recruited via the three recruitment methods listed in the Recruitment section to cover a large portion of the Valley (Figure 2). The areas that we are focusing on are primarily the ones having Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) stations. During the 2018 monsoon, we attempted to recruit as many CS as possible and collect as much data as possible. In 2019, we are shifting our focus towards a focus on data quality rather than quantity. Our goal is that good and reliable spatio-temporal precipitation data could be generated and used to inform water management decisions in the future.
We also love getting to know our CS through working together, and we want you to get to know them as well, because they’re great! Every so often, we publish an interview or story about one of our citizen scientists as well. Our most recent one is available here.
Thank you for taking an interest in our work and reading about what we’re up to this summer as part of Monsoon Expedition 2019!!
Figure 2: Spatial distribution of citizen scientists measuring precipitation in the Kathmandu Valley in 2019.
References
Malla, G. (2008) Climate change and its impact on Nepalese agriculture. Journal of agriculture and environment. 9, pp.62-71.
Water is one of our most precious and indispensable commodities. Putting our favorite Lord Kelvin phrase into action (‘You can’t manage a resource you don’t measure’), SmartPhones4Water (S4W)-Nepal generates data to support students, researchers and policymakers in making wise water management decisions. Extreme population growth has led to stress on the water resources of the Kathmandu Valley, and the project initiated by S4W-Nepal has the objective of collecting the data necessary to quantify these stresses and inform sustainable water management, so that effective solutions can be developed and implemented. Although we began in the Kathmandu Valley, S4W-Nepal has recently been expanding efforts and data collection into other regions of Nepal as well.
Included below is an interview with Sadam Bala, one of our citizen scientists taking daily precipitation measurements. Each citizen scientist has their own story and unique perspective to share. Let’s see what some of his personal interests, experiences working as a citizen scientist in S4W-Nepal and other thoughts are.
Fig: Citizen Scientist
Currently working at Nepal Electrical Authority (NEA) in Pokhara as an Electrical Engineer, Sadam Bala was born and raised in Bhaktapur. He completed his Bachelor’s in Electrical Engineering at the Institute of Engineering (IOE), Pulchowk Campus, which is one of the most prestigious engineering colleges in Nepal. Along with his work, he is currently enrolled in Western Regional Campus in Pokhara, pursuing his Master’s in Distributed Generation. Besides academics and work, his personal interests are travelling to new places and up to now, he has travelled several districts of Bagmati, Gandaki, Dhaulagiri and some parts of the mid and far-western regions of Nepal. He looks forward to continuing to travel and explore new places! He loves exploring and learning about new things and the modern concept of ‘citizen science’ fascinated him and drew him into being a part of S4W-Nepal.
It has been a year since Bala became involved in S4W-Nepal as a citizen scientist taking daily precipitation measurements. He is one of only a few citizen scientists from Pokhara. In his interview, Bala said, ‘Data collection is the basis for scientific research.’ He believes effective and informative research is an outcome of good data, and good data is also the basis for appropriate management of natural resources (including water!) both in the present and looking to the future. He further added, ‘It is not a tough job to take a picture and send data through a mobile application. It only takes a few minutes a day, not at all time consuming’. He feels happy to be able to participate in scientific research with minimal effort. Bala was aware of the importance of the citizen science concept as in his interview he highlighted citizen scientists as a critical part of research. Through S4W-Nepal, he has learned about existing problems and data gaps in the water resources field and how citizen scientists can reduce or eliminate those data gaps.
To his fellow citizen scientists, he conveys a message that these types of projects help an individual learn new and interesting things and can make them aware of existing problems that need to be addressed. Besides, citizen science projects can help built a network among individuals with different experience and backgrounds, which can be crucial in their personal development as well as for overall community or nation-building in the long run. From his personal experience, he suggests that his fellow citizen scientists be dedicated, self-motivated and work selflessly as the work is important and only requires a few minutes each day.
Each day, Sadam Bala uses an Android application called Open Data Kit (ODK) to record rainfall collected by an inexpensive locally made rain gauge (each gauge costs about $1.50 USD). Bala is motivated to participate in the project because he is fascinated by the citizen science concept, and he understands that data collection is a very important part of scientific research. Because of this, he is also eager to participate in large scale data collection in the near future if any opportunities are available.
Citizen science helps ordinary people increase their scientific understanding. All it takes is a smartphone with good GPS, a camera and access to the Internet to deinstitutionalize science and help the inner scientist in all of us grow, learn, and participate in scientific work on a broader scale. It gives every one of us opportunities for better understanding of a variety of subject matters, from water resources to backyard birds to the time of year that flowers are in bloom.
YOU CAN BE A CITIZEN SCIENTIST TOO!!!!
S4W = citizen science + mobile technology + young researchers. Citizen science refers to collaborations between scientists and general people to fill important scientific data gaps and expand the horizon of scientific data collection. S4W-Nepal uses an Android application called Open Data Kit (ODK) for data collection with the help of citizen scientists. The advanced mobile technology with good GPS and camera have improved the reliability and accuracy of citizen science observations. The citizen science approach is very cost effective and rapidly scalable.
Figure 1. Citizen Science Participants at First Training.
In April of 2018, S4W-Nepal launched its first ever Pre-monsoon Citizen Science Flow Campaign. The main objective of this campaign was to assess the spatial variations in discharge of Bagmati River and its tributaries within Kathmandu Valley using the salt dilution technique (there are many variations of this technique, but more information on the technique we utilized can be found here). Since the primary source of water recharge in Kathmandu Valley is from the monsoon precipitation, which only lasts for about four months (roughly from June to September), we decided it would be interesting to see the pre- and post-monsoon variation of discharge in the rivers and springs of Kathmandu Valley. Additionally, even without monsoon precipitation patterns, the diverse geology of this small valley will have an influence on the spatial variability of discharge. It is another factor to consider in our investigation into spatial variation.
We believe that this research will further understanding of water availability within the Kathmandu Valley and enable water managers to make better decisions in the future.
Figure 2: Sub-watersheds of Kathmandu Valley.
Twenty-five students from the Khwopa College of Engineering in Bhaktapur were mobilised in ten different watersheds (Figure 2) of the Kathmandu Valley. In total, across all the watersheds, discharge was measured at more than 150 locations (Figure 3). Since the salt dilution technique is only suitable for high-gradient well mixed rivers with low Electrical Conductivity (EC), measurements were only performed in upstreams of rivers with River Quality Classes (RQC) ranging between I and III. Click here to review a recent publication in which we classified the RQC of all nine perennial tributaries of the Bagmati River using the Rapid Stream Assessment (RSA) technique. We are currently working on processing and analyzing these data, and we hope to include them in a peer-reviewed research article in the future. Additionally, S4W-Nepal is currently developing an online web application that will be used to house and provide data collected through S4W-Nepal efforts such as this. Once it is complete, these data will be uploaded and freely available for the benefit of all.
Figure 3. Salt Dilution Measurement Locations within the Kathmandu Valley.
Our sincere thanks goes to Khwopa College of Engineering for providing us with a group of enthusiastic young researchers to successfully complete this campaign; photos from our training on the salt dilution technique can be seen below (Figure 4). We hope this campaign and the hands-on field experience allowed participants to go beyond their practical, classroom lessons on the subject of “Hydrology” that they had recently completed. Completing this campaign was another milestone for S4W-Nepal towards furthering our three pronged approach of Research, Education, and Employment.
Currently, water resource management is one of the key issues for the Kathmandu Valley. Water resources could be managed properly through spatial and temporal quantification of water quality and quantity. Usual methods of streamflow measurement included installation of water level loggers, streamflow measurement by velocity meters, stage-discharge relationships, etc. However, these methods require trained professionals and significant funding, and they are difficult to apply at a large scale. With recent advances in mobile technologies, data collection efforts that take advantage of citizen scientists and mobile technology can be more easily applied at a larger scale. S4W-Nepal aims to combine citizen science with simple data collection techniques to generate spatially distributed hydrological data. You can find out more about our work at our website here.
This is our fourth interview with one of our citizen scientists who are collecting the data and doing the day-to-day work that makes our project in the Kathmandu Valley possible. We’re excited to introduce you to Sabina Tamang!
Figure 1. Sabina with her daughter Aifa.
Q: What is your name? A: My name is Sabina Tamang.
Q: How old are you? A: I’m 25 years old.
Q: Where were you born? A: I was born in Okhreni, Sundarijal in the Kathmandu Valley.
Q: Where do you live in the Kathmandu Valley? A: I live in Okhreni, Kathmandu.
Interviewer’s Note: Okhreni is located about 15 kilometers northeast of Nepal’s capital, Kathmandu, within Shivapuri National Park. Since it is located within a National Park, it still lacks basic infrastructure such as concrete houses, proper roads, shops, etc. Okhreni is a very important cultural site since it is near natural (i.e. still undeveloped) and located in the headwaters of the Bagmati River.
Q: Can you walk us through a typical day of life? What are the activities you’re doing? A: In addition to being a mother and keeping a household, I am involved in S4W as a citizen scientist, and I have been taking precipitation and water level measurements for the past two years.
Interviewer’s Note: S4W-Nepal is thankful for the opportunity to provide part-time employment opportunities to people like Sabina in a way that provides supplemental income and adds value to their lives, as well as improving our understanding of Nepal’s water resources. It’s a win-win!
Q: Can you tell us a little bit about your family? A: I have one daughter, Aifa, who is three and a half years old. I live with her and my mother.
Q: What is (or was) your favorite subject in school? A: Nepali was my favorite subject.
Q: Can you tell us about a favorite moment of yours? A: My favorite moments of my life are from my school days…
Q: How did you hear about the S4W-Nepal project? A: I heard about S4W-Nepal through another citizen scientist named Sumina Tamang. She who lives in Mulkharka, on the other side of Shivapuri National Park.
Figure 2. Spring at Okhreni.
Q: What has been your experience as a citizen scientist with S4W so far? A: As I mentioned before, I have been collecting precipitation and water level data for about two years. I have started noticing changes in the measurements I take throughout the year. I can now explain to people about base flow and runoff of rivers in my area. I have also started to understand the importance of the monsoon. I am also getting a stipend which motivates me in continuing to participate in the project. This project has helped me in boosting my knowledge about local resources as well as my economic condition.
Sabina is playing a critical role in S4W-Nepal as a citizen scientist and is one of the longest standing CS involved in our team. Each day, she uses an Android application called Open Data Kit (ODK) to record rainfall collected by an inexpensive locally made rain gauge (each costs about $1.50) and to record water level as seen on a gauge installed near her house. Sabina is one of the citizen scientists who sends data regularly and is very dedicated in her work. She is motivated to participate in the project both because she feels a sense of responsibility and because she is financially compensated for her participation.
S4W-Nepal is a collaboration between S4W-USA, Himalayan Biodiversity and Climate Change Center (HimBioCliCC), Tribhuvan University Institute of Engineering (TU IoE), Kathmandu Institute of Applied Sciences (KIAS), Delft University of Technology, the Swedish International Development Agency, and Stockholm University. Water is our most precious resource. Lord Kelvin, a famous Scottish mathematician, once said, “you can’t manage a resource you don’t measure.” S4W-Nepal’s goal is to generate the data necessary to support wise water management decisions. S4W aims to accomplish this with a three-pronged approach of Research, Education, and Employment. This project in the Kathmandu Valley is our first project.
