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Traditional hiti system of the Kathmandu Valley

Traditional hiti system of the Kathmandu Valley

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The hiti system is the cornerstone of the ancient water management system in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. The hiti system was introduced in the Valley even before the Lichhavi period (400-750 A.D.), and its network was expanded during the Malla period (Shrestha and Maharjan, 2016). A hiti (stone spout in English) is a traditional water resource usually present at a man-made depression in which water is channeled from a source to function as a tap. The traditional hiti system is an integrated water supply system that incorporates major sources of water i.e., rainwater, groundwater, and surface water resources. The hiti system consists of five major components:

Figure 1: Flowchart showing the working of the traditional water supply system.

  1. Intake 
  2. The conveyance canals and the rajkulos
  3. The stone spouts or the hiti 
  4. The pukhus and wells
  5. The drainage system / 

This traditional water system has served as one of the vital water sources required to meet water demands during dry days since ancient times. It is still actively used for drinking purposes by the locals residing in some core areas of the Valley. Recent studies have shown that the existing stone spouts of the Valley have been contributing to fulfill the water demands of about 10% of its population (Tripathi et al., 2019). Besides its significance in terms of water supply, the hiti system possesses considerable historical and cultural importance. However, the system has not been valued and often neglected by both the community and the state after the introduction of the modern piped supply system in 1950 A.D. (UN-HABITAT, 2008). At present, the traditional water supply systems (stone spouts, ponds, and wells) are in defunct conditions owing to the weak management capabilities of the government, the absence of proper policies, and lack of ownership. According to the Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board (KVWSMB) report, there are 573 stone spouts and 233 ponds in the Valley, out of which 94 stone spouts and 40 ponds are completely lost (KVWSMB, 2019). Therefore, the existing traditional hiti system and its components should be monitored, conserved, and actions should be taken for the revival of the system.

Figure 2: Study area showing the location of monitoring wells and stone spouts.

Smartphones For Water Nepal (S4W-Nepal) has been monitoring the traditional hiti system of the Bhaktapur Municipality (BM) through a feasible citizen science approach. In order to monitor the hiti system of the BM, S4W-Nepal has recruited and trained 13 Citizen Scientists (CS) who are currently pursuing their bachelors. The CS have been recording monthly data of the discharge/quality of 16 stone spouts and the groundwater level/quality of 49 wells since 2019. Based on the collected data, S4W-Nepal aims to study the water distribution mechanism, the interactions of the stone spout with the neighboring wells and ponds, and also initiate the study on the possibilities of the revival of the system. Figure 2 shows the locations of the monitoring wells and stone spouts of S4W-Nepal. In the mid of every month, our CS measure the groundwater level using a measuring tape, and stone spout discharge by the help of a measuring cylinder. The stone spout discharge is calculated by determining the volume of water filled in the measuring cylinder within a certain period of time. Certain water quality parameters including temperature and Electrical Conductivity (EC) are also monitored using the HoneForest EC meter. An android application called Open Data Kit (ODK) Collect was used as a data collection platform.

Seasonal variation of groundwater levels and stone spouts discharge 

A preliminary analysis has been carried out considering the monthly groundwater level and stone spouts discharge data collected by our CS from March 2019 to February 2021. The monthly data was transformed into seasonal data to understand the seasonal variation.

Figure 3: Boxplot showing the seasonal variation of groundwater level from March 2019 to February 2021

Figure 4: Boxplot showing the seasonal variation of stone spouts discharge from March 2019 to February 2021.

The boxplots (Figure 3 and 4) show the seasonal fluctuation of the groundwater level and stone spouts discharge in the period of two years (March 2019 to February 2021). The groundwater level was maximum during the pre-monsoon in both 2019 and 2020 and lowest during the post-monsoon in 2019 and monsoon in 2020. Similarly, the discharge was observed to be highest during the monsoon season in 2019 and post-monsoon in 2020. Over the study period, the discharge was lowest during the pre-monsoon season, followed by winter. However, it was found that the overall discharge of the stone spout in all four seasons was higher in 2020/2021 compared to 2019/2020. The higher precipitation in 2020 compared to 2019 is the possible cause for such variation in the groundwater level and stone spout discharge in the two years. The overall seasonal trend in the fluctuation of the groundwater level and stone spouts in both years was almost similar, indicating high dependence of the groundwater level and water discharge on rainfall. As the trend is similar in both boxplots, it can be assumed that there exists a certain degree of interactions between stone spouts and wells of the BM.

Interactions between stone spouts and wells in terms of EC

Figure 5: Spatial variation of EC in the stone spouts and wells during monsoon 2019/2020
Figure 6: Spatial variation of ECin the stone spouts and wells during post-monsoon 2020/2021

The parametric values of EC recorded by our CS in the two years were analyzed to understand the interactions of the wells and stone spouts. The above map (Figure 5) shows the spatial variations of EC in the stone spouts and wells of the BM. It can be observed that the well AW1 and stone spout BS3 lie nearer to each other and their EC values were also similar. Similarly, the stone spout CS3 and the wells CW1 and BW4 had close EC values. Furthermore, the stone spout CS5 and the well BW8 showed almost the same EC values. So, the aforementioned stone spouts and wells were found to interact in terms of EC and may have the same source. However, any strong conclusion can’t be drawn on the basis of this finding, since only one parameter was taken into account.

Furthermore, similar studies including multiple water quality parameters along with proper site selections should be carried out to fully comprehend the interactions between stone spouts and wells. The traditional hiti system is a very unique water heritage with great architectural and cultural significance and can serve as an excellent source of drinking water, particularly in the water-scarce region like the Valley. The degradation of traditional water resources not only causes a water supply deficit but also poses a significant influence on the historical and traditional aspects of the Valley. Therefore, the conservation and preservation of the existing traditional hiti system should be promoted and studies related to the feasibility for the revival of their components should also be initiated by the concerned authorities and organizations.

Reference

Shrestha, R.P. and Maharjan, K.L. (2016) Traditional water resource use and adaptation efforts in Nepal. Journal of International Development and Cooperation, 22(1&2), pp.47-58. Available from URL: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/222955771.pdf [Accessed 12th May 2021]

Tripathi, M., Hughey, K. F. D. and Rennie, H. G. (2019) The State of Traditional Stone Spouts in Relation to Their Use and Management in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites. 20 (5-6), pp 319-339. Available from URL:  https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13505033.2018.1559421  [Accessed 12th May 2021]

UN-Habitat (2008) Water Movement in Patan: With Reference to Traditional Stone Spouts in Nepal. United Nations Information Centre, Kathmandu Nepal: United Nations Human Settlements Programme.Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board, Government of Nepal (2019). Stone spouts and ponds of Kathmandu Valley. Kathmandu, Nepal: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Water Supply and Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board.

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the spatial and temporal variation of streamflow

Understanding the spatial and temporal variation of streamflow in the headwater streams

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Headwater streams are small and numerous capillaries of stream networks and comprise a significant portion of aquatic ecosystems. Headwaters are defined as a watercourse within the first 2.5 km of its furthest source, occurring over a range of climate, geology, hydrology, and biogeographical settings (Callanan et al., 2008). In contrast to downstream reaches, headwater streams are characterized by their close interactions with the hill slopes processes, more spatiotemporal variation, and their extra need for different means of protection from land use (Gomi et al., 2002). Headwaters streams are necessary for understanding and protecting downstream ecosystems as they are intimately linked. Given their importance and growing pressures on aquatic resources, understanding the drivers of headwater flow must be improved to facilitate wise land and water management decisions.

In the Kathmandu Valley (Valley), headwaters are mostly present in the outskirts of the developed areas and are near natural land uses. Headwaters are clean and pure and provide water to meet the domestic and irrigation demands of the population living in the Valley. The domestic water demand in the Valley was 415.5 million liters per day (MLD) in  2016, which is expected to increase to 540.3 MLD by 2021 (Udmale et al., 2016). To supply fresh water to the entire Valley population, Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) has tapped headwater streams and springs into reservoirs. Regardless of their significance, headwater streams are underestimated and poorly managed compared to the downstream streams. These streams are channelized, diverted, polluted, and at worst destroyed. The headwaters should be conserved in order to sustain the downstream population. 

Therefore, Smartphones for Water Nepal (S4W-Nepal) has started monitoring these headwater streams since 2018 by involving young researchers and citizen scientists. As a part of headwater stream monitoring, S4W-Nepal has been collecting hydrological data that includes stream water level, stream discharge along with their water quality of the 14 different headwaters of the  Kathmandu Valley. 

Figure 1: Study area watershed showing streamflow measurement sites

Figure 1 shows the monitoring sites of the S4W-Nepal. Every month, young researchers from S4W-Nepal perform United States Geological Survey mid-section method discharge measurements with a SonTek FlowTracker Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter and measure the water level from a staff gauge installed in the streams. Furthermore, they also collect few water quality parameters such as temperature, EC, pH, and TDS. All the data are recorded using an android application called Open Data Kit (ODK) Collect. S4W-Nepal intends to increase its stream monitoring network in the future by involving a greater number of citizen scientists.

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Dr. Rijan Bhakta Kayastha

Glacial Hazards in the Nepal Himalayas

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Dr. Rijan Bhakta Kayastha
Himalayan Cryosphere, Climate and Disaster Research Center (HiCCDRC)
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Science, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Kavre, Bagmati Province, NEPAL

Nepal is rich in water resources because of its monsoon, snow-covered area, and a number of glaciers in the Himalayas. However, the hydrological responses of the snow-covered and glaciated zones are distinct from the other zones of Nepal. The water resource of Nepal is heavily dependent on monsoon dynamics and the state of the snow and glacier ice in the Himalayas. Climate change affects both monsoon dynamics and snow and glacier ice in the Himalayas. In addition to this, climate change is also responsible for the increasing number of glacial hazards recently in Nepal. 

Glacier is a moving body of snow and ice that has been formed as a recrystallization of snow and a glacial lake is a lake that is formed by glacial activity. Glacial hazard includes any hazard in a glaciated region such as snow and ice avalanche, flash flood due to supraglacial lake draining, and rapid melting of snow and ice of a glacier, Glacial Lake Outburst flood (GLOF), ground subsidence due to rapid thawing of permafrost and heavy snowfall in a glaciated region, etc. 

Many studies have shown retreat of glaciers, expanding existing glacial lakes and forming new lakes and altitude of a lower limit of permafrost are shifting upward in the Nepal Himalayas. There are 19 glacierized sub-river basins from east to west in which there are 3,808 glaciers and 2,070 glacial lakes in Nepal (Bajracharya et al., 2020). Total 47 glacial lakes in Nepal, Tibet, China, and India are classified as Potentially Dangerous Glacial Lakes to Nepal because if these glacial lakes are drained, the flood water will enter into Nepal and damage considerably. Out of 47 potentially dangerous glacial lakes in the Himalayas, 25 are in Tibet, China, 21 in Nepal, and 1 in India. This renders much of the infrastructure along the rivers originating from these lakes at immediate risk.

A 2011 study by ICIMOD reported 24 GLOF events in the past, 14 of which had occurred in Nepal, while 10 were caused by overspills due to flood surges across  China (TAR)‒Nepal border (ICIMOD, 2011). On 4 August 1985, a Dig Tsho GLOF event swept away three persons, one hydropower plant, 14 bridges, and 35 houses along the Dudh Koshi River. Table 1 shows major GLOF events since the 1980s that have caused damages in Nepal. Since GLOF events are increasing recently, in order to reduce the risk from such events again the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, Government of Nepal has reduced the water level of Tsho Rolpa Glacial Lake in Dolakha district by 3 m in 2000 and that of Imja Glacial Lake in Solukhumbu district in 2016 by 3.4 m successfully.  

Table 1. GLOF events since the 1980s that have caused damages in Nepal.

S. No.DateRiver basinLocation
123 June 1980TamorNagma Pokhari
211 July 1981Bhote KoshiCirenmacho Lake, Zhangzangbo Valley
34 August 1985Dudh KoshiDig Tsho
412 July 1991Tama KoshiChubung
53 September 1998Dudh KoshiSabai Tsho (Tam Pokhari)
65 July 2016Bhote KoshiTAR, China
720 April 2017Barun ValleyNear Lower Barun

In the recent past, also a few flash flood events in the glacierized river basins of Nepal are occurring mainly due to irregular monsoon activity and sudden warming epochs in some regions. Seti flash flood on 5 May 2012 due to snow, ice, and rock avalanche, a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) on 5 July 2016 in Bhotekoshi River in Tibet, China, and a flash flood on 20 April 2017 in Barun River are a few examples. Such events have increased the risk of glacial hazards, especially in the high mountain areas. Therefore, it is high time to monitor weather, snow, glaciers, glacial lakes of the high Himalayas by establishing suitable stations and need to install  early warning systems in downstream of such glacierized river basins in Nepal. 

Snow and weather monitoring stations at high altitudes will be also useful to analyze possible snow hazards and then flash floods in the downstream as such occurred in Seti River in Nepal on 5 May 2012, heavy rainfall resulting rapid melting of snow and ice from Chorabari Glacier in Kedarnath, India on 16 June 2013, heavy snowfall by Cyclone Hudhud on 13 October 2013 in the Annapurna region, Nepal, and the recent Chamoli flash flood in Uttarakhand in India on 7 February 2021 due to snow, ice, and rock avalanche. Since weather, snow, glacier, and glacial lake monitoring stations are very rare in the Nepal Himalayas, it is very high time to establish such stations across Nepal to reduce and prevent damages caused by glacial hazards in Nepal.

References:

Bajracharya, S. R., Maharjan, S. B., Shrestha, F., Sherpa, T.C., Wagle, N., Shrestha, A. B.

(2020). Inventory of glacial lakes and identification of potentially dangerous glacial lakes in the

Koshi, Gandaki, and Karnali River Basins of Nepal, the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, and

India. Research Report. ICIMOD and UNDP.

ICIMOD (2011). Glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst floods in Nepal. Kathmandu: ICIMOD.
Note: ‘Young Researcher’ Issue 05 – May 2021

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Bhesh Raj Thapa

Groundwater Governance Prospects and Challenges in Nepal

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The set of framework and guiding principles that provide an environment for collective management of groundwater for sustainability, equity, and efficiency can be understood as groundwater governance. The groundwater resources vary widely with natural variation and geological heterogeneity. Therefore, governance must be adapted to the local context. Groundwater, being an integral part of the hydrological cycle, needs to be managed in conjunction with linked water and land resources. Over time, groundwater extraction in Nepal for different purposes has been growing gradually (driven by demography, technology, and changing lifestyles), resulting in threats to its sustainability. This indicates that sound governance is a pressing priority. However, the development and implementation of several components of the governance are creating a larger governance gap.  

 Er. Bhesh Raj Thapa
International Water Management Institute

In Nepal, intensive groundwater extraction, pollution by inadequate sanitation and wastewater treatment, pollution by industry and agriculture, inequitable allocation, inefficient use, and land subsidence are the key issues and challenges for groundwater management, mainly in bigger cities and the Terai area. In addition to this, the role of groundwater actors and their mode of interaction, regulatory and institutional framework, policies development, and their implementation is not well understood and not in function. Such frameworks and policies need to be revisited for good governance in the groundwater sector. Although several water-related laws and regulations focusing on groundwater have been made, groundwater has practically remained an unregulated resource in Nepal.

The cities like Kathmandu have been facing negative consequences like drying of traditional water sources, decreasing well yields, and declining groundwater levels due to excess extraction rather than recharge. Groundwater act, regulation, and policy exist, but the mechanism and dynamics of changes for sustainable management of groundwater have not been properly addressed till date. Overlapping responsibilities and sectoral conflicts in water institutions in most of the major cities are causing weak governance in the water sector. In addition to this, poor understanding of hydrological dynamics of conjunctive water use and local hydro-geological complexities are also major constraints for sustainable groundwater management through policy formulation and implementation.

Improving groundwater governance is not easy, hence the responsible local institutions have to make their judgement based on the regulation and policies to suggest feasible and effective measures in the current situations. All the relevant parties need to commit and cooperate towards a common goal for effective groundwater governance. Good governance will mainly be guided with four sets of principal and consideration: political and institutional (accountability, representation, consistency, institutional capacity etc.); socio-cultural (religious and spiritual traditions, social learning, social inclusion, ethics etc.); economic (price signal, groundwater storage condition, water quality impacts, willingness to pay etc.); ecological (storage, attenuation rate and renewability, land uses etc.). To improve the groundwater governance, it needs to be treated in a holistic approach and proper management instrument and measures need to be selected based on the local condition. Their effectiveness not only depends on the local physical, institutional, economic and social condition but also on the way these measures are designed and implemented. In addition to this, information and knowledge regarding local conditions need to be shared and awareness related to the baseline of the groundwater resources and their safe limit need to be raised for good groundwater governance. Reaching an effective level of awareness is the first step towards structural communication between decision-makers, planners, groundwater specialists and stakeholders. For adequate groundwater management, a powerful and effectively operating groundwater organization is a must. In addition to this, the laws related to groundwater allow for a connection between the policies of groundwater and those of the related field such as surface water management, land use planning, and environmental protections.

Note: ‘Young Researcher’ Issue 04 – Jan 2021

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S4W NEPAL RESEARCH

Is citizen science reliable for monitoring rainfall?

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Citizen science is an approach to science that engages and includes the general public in scientific research, which has the benefits of connecting the general public with professional scientists and increasing their scientific understanding (Keyles, 2020). Smartphones For Water Nepal (S4W-Nepal) appreciates these benefits and employs this approach. For more than four years S4W-Nepal has conducted the Monsoon Expedition in the Kathmandu Valley (Valley) by mobilizing citizen scientists, mobile technology, and young researchers to measure precipitation during the monsoon (roughly May to September). The citizen scientists use a cost-effective rain gauge and an android phone to perform daily rainfall measurements. The S4W-Nepal rain gauge is made of recycled clear plastic bottles (Coke or Fanta) of 2.15 liters having a uniform diameter of 100 mm, a concrete base, and a ruler with millimeter gradations (Figure 1).              

S4W NEPAL RESEARCH
Figure 1: S4W rain gauge
Figure 2: Monthly cumulative rainfall distribution in the Kathmandu Valley for monsoon 2019.

For the 2019 Monsoon Expedition, S4W-Nepal recruited and trained 55 enthusiastic citizen scientists to monitor rainfall in different parts of the Valley. Through this, a good set of spatial rainfall data from May to September of 2019 of the Valley was generated. In 2019, the monsoon entered Nepal in the third week of June (DHM, 2019). Heavy rainfall was observed in July in the Valley which triggered flooding in several rivers, adversely affecting the settlements near the river corridors (Uprety, 2019). In order to understand the spatio-temporal variation of rainfall in the Valley, the daily rainfall measurements recorded by the CS (after quality control) were considered and a spatial map (May-September) was prepared by interpolating the CS point coverage to a continuous valleywide coverage (Figure 2). The data generated by citizen scientists show that rainfall was highest in the month of July (mean= 417.63 mm), followed by September (mean = 287.68) and August (mean = 250.44 mm) (Figure 2).

According to Davids et al. (2019), the S4W rain gauge used by citizen scientists for taking rainfall measurements is estimated to have an error of 2.9% compared to a standard Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) gauge. As an additional evaluation of the citizen scientists’ rainfall data from the S4W rain gauge in comparison to the DHM gauge, the CS stations located near the DHM stations (i.e., co-located stations) were chosen by generating Thiessen polygons in QGIS and identifying polygons with both a DHM gauge and CS station. Then, 17 co-located stations resulting from this process were selected to directly compare with the standard DHM rain gauge in the Valley. Only overlapping data from May to September 2019 were used for statistical comparison. The data of citizen scientists were correlated with the respective DHM stations based on Pearson correlation coefficient method to determine their relationship. The correlation between 10 co-located stations was found to be strong (above 0.60), 5 co-located stations were moderate (between 0.40-0.59), and 2 co-located stations were weak (below 0.39). The correlations for all stations were statistically significant at 0.01 significance level except for two; differences at the two stations may be due to greater distances between DHM and CS stations in these locations (~1.5 km for Sakhnu and ~0.5 km for Naikap). The times series of cumulative rainfall suggests that there is a similar trend of rainfall in both DHM and citizen scientists’ stations (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Time series of cumulative rainfall amount from June to August 2019 of Bhaktapur DHM station (BT) and citizen scientist station (BT_CS_BP)

These results demonstrate that citizen science can be a feasible approach for collecting reliable rainfall data, along with educating the citizen scientists about the need and applications of hydrometeorological data. Also, the simple and cost-effective S4W-Nepal rain gauge is accurate enough to generate reliable rainfall measurement data. Therefore, citizen scientist networks should be further expanded to other regions in Nepal to fulfill the hydro-meteorological data gaps that exist. Furthermore, citizen scientists should be educated, trained, and motivated to complete regular rainfall measurements since these data can have a big impact in the field of research and support better water resource management decisions, along with raising awareness with citizens about the complexity and value of managing this precious resource.

References

Davids, J. C., Devkota, N., Pandey, A., Prajapati, R., Ertis, B. A., Rutten, M. M., Lyon, S. W, Bogaard, T. A. and Giesen, N. V. (2019) Soda Bottle Science—Citizen Science Monsoon Precipitation Monitoring in Nepal. Frontiers in Earth Science [online]. 7. Available from DOI: 10.3389/feart.2019.00046.

DHM (2019). Monsoon Onset and Withdrawal date information. Available from URL: https://www.dhm.gov.np/uploads/climatic/79118284monsoon%20onset%20n%20withdrawal%20English%20final.pdf.

Uprety, M. (2019) A dramatic start to Nepal’s 2019 monsoon season [Blog]. Available from URL: https://floodresilience.net/blogs/a-dramatic-start-to-nepals-2019-monsoon-season.

Keyles, S. (2018) CITIZEN SCIENCE: AN IMPORTANT TOOL FOR RESEARCHERS. Science Connected Magazine.

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s4w

Citizen Science Groundwater Level Monitoring in the Kathmandu Valley

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Groundwater, the water present in the spaces between rock and soil particles of the saturated zone underneath the earth’s surface, is a major source of freshwater for sustaining both global human civilizations and ecosystems (Earman and Dettinger, 2011). In the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal (Valley), groundwater is widely used for various purposes, including drinking and agriculture. The major sources of groundwater in the Valley include dug wells, tube wells, stone spouts, and deep tube wells (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of different sources of groundwater a) shallow tube well, b) deep tubewell, c) dug well and d) stone spout: RV = Reservoir, CN = Canal (Rajkulo), PD = Pond, FM = Filtration media, SL= Supply line, HT = Hiti, HP = Hiti platform, DR= Drainage (overflow), GW = Groundwater, AQ = Aquifer (confined), GL = Ground level, ST = Stairs (Ahmed, 2002; Ahuja et al., 2014; Ghimire and Johnston, 2015) 

More than 50% of the water demand of the Valley is supplied by the groundwater (Aryal, 2011; Shrestha, 2017), and approximately 60 Million-Litres-a-day (MLD) of the total municipal water supply is extracted from various groundwater resources (Dhakal, 2010). Additionally, mechanized groundwater extraction is widespread in the Valley due to the uneven distribution of water resources in the Valley, an inadequate municipal water supply, and other factors. Overall, the groundwater extraction rate is six times higher than its natural recharge capacity, resulting in the groundwater table being lowered by approximately 2.5 meters per year (Shrestha, 2009). This extensive extraction of groundwater in the Valley is a result of diverse anthropogenic activities and demands regular monitoring of groundwater levels. 

Therefore, Smartphones For Water Nepal (S4W-Nepal) started monitoring groundwater levels in the Valley in 2017 through a citizen science approach. Citizen science engages the general public in the scientific research design, data collection, analysis, and other scientific works in collaboration with professional scientists (Cappa et al., 2018). Also, it increases the scientific knowledge of the local people or Citizen Scientists (CS), in this example with regards to groundwater level fluctuations.  We at S4W-Nepal intend to continue to monitor groundwater levels and expand our data’s spatial coverage by following this feasible and sustainable approach. In order to monitor groundwater levels, we have selected certain existing wells in the Valley, considering their spatial location and distribution. Figure 2 shows the location of regular monitoring wells of S4W-Nepal, including both CS and staff sites. Unlike other water resources monitoring projects, S4W-Nepal promotes sustainable monitoring of groundwater resources by converting the existing wells into monitoring wells and involving CS in collecting groundwater level data. In the middle of every month, our citizen scientists record the groundwater level with a measuring tape and an android application called Open Data Kit (ODK) Collect. The CS can easily record the date and time of data collection, location of monitoring well, and the depth to water in meters (along with photos taken on site) through a customized form developed by S4W-Nepal in ODK Collect and forward it to the server of S4W-Nepal. Once data are received, we perform quality control and do immediate follow-up calls to minimize errors.

Figure 2: S4W-Nepal’s regular monitoring wells (both CS and staff sites) 

S4W-Nepal’s Citizen Scientists for monitoring groundwater level

We recruit most of our CS through a variety of outreach programs, social media, and personal contacts. There is no age, gender, and educational restriction to become a CS; anyone interested in the scientific process of data collection can become a CS. To date, S4W-Nepal has recruited and trained 86 CS to monitor groundwater levels. Understanding groundwater level variation and supporting the sustainable management of groundwater resources motivates our CS to collect the data regularly. The age of CS involved in S4W-Nepal for monitoring gw level data ranges between 15 – 33 years, and the majority of them are students from different educational backgrounds. Out of our 86 CS, 40 (46.5%) are female and 46 (53.5%) are male. We currently have 23 regular CS collecting monthly groundwater level data from different locations of the Valley. We regularly communicate with our CS through follow up calls/SMS with monthly reminders or follow-up on data collection, to see if they have any questions, and to encourage them to continue data collection and their involvement. One of the challenges of citizen science projects is maintaining and seeking to improve the engagement of CS over time.

Temporal variation of groundwater levels in the Valley

Based on the groundwater level data collected by our CS from March of 2019 to February of 2020, a preliminary analysis has been done to understand the temporal variation of groundwater levels of the Valley (Figure 3). Data from 35 regular monitoring wells have been taken into consideration in this analysis. 

The boxplot below reveals the monthly fluctuations of groundwater in the time period of 1 year. The groundwater level is maximum during the monsoon season (June- September), and the groundwater level is lowest in December of 2019 (i.e., post-monsoon period). Also, the groundwater levels dropped sharply from October of 2019, the beginning of the post-monsoon period. This indicates the direct influence of rainfall on the groundwater level. 

Figure 3: Boxplot showing the monthly groundwater level fluctuation

Despite the critical need for groundwater monitoring, there is still a significant data gap that needs to be closed to better understand groundwater fluctuations across the Valley and under varying conditions. Therefore, the regular monitoring of the groundwater level by using a citizen science approach should be continued and expanded. Besides, it will make the general public more aware of groundwater conditions, more actively involved in monitoring and managing this critical resource, and will promote proper groundwater resources management. 

References

Ahmed, F. (2002) Water Supply options. Available from URL: http://wilsonweb.physics.harvard.edu/arsenic/conferences/Feroze_Ahmed/Sec_3.htm [Accessed on 18th November, 2020]

Ahuja, S., Larsen, M. C., Eimers, J. L., Patterson, C. L., Sengupta, S. and Schnoor, J. L. (2014) Comprehensive water quality and purification. Waltham, MA: Elsevier.

Aryal, R. S. (2011). Ground water reality.New Spotlight. 4(19). March 25, 2011.

Cappa, F., Laut, J., Porfiri, M. and Giustiniano, L. (2018) Bring them aboard: Rewarding participation in technology-mediated citizen science projects. Computers in Human Behavior [online]. 89, pp.246-257. Available from DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.017

Earman, S. and Dettinger, M. (2011) Potential impacts of climate change on groundwater resources – a global review. Journal of Water and Climate Change [online]. 2(4), pp. 213–229. Available from DOI: 10.2166/wcc.2011.034 

Ghimire, S. and Johnston, J,M. (2015) Traditional Knowledge of Rainwater Harvesting Compared to Five Modern Case Studies. Conference: Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2015 [online]. Available from DOI: 10.1061/9780784479162.017

Shrestha, R.R. (2009) Rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge for water storage in the Kathmandu Valley. ICIMOD Newsletter [online]. 56, pp.27-30. Available from URL: https://www.indiawaterportal.org/sites/indiawaterportal.org/files/Water%20Storage_%20Climate%20Change%20Adaptation%20Strategy_%20ICIMOD_2009.pdf#page=29 

Shrestha, S. (2017) The contested common pool resource: Ground water use in urban Kathmandu, Nepal. The Geographical Journal of Nepal.  10, pp. 153-166.

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Water Induced Disaster In Nepal And The Role Of Citizen Scientist

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Dinesh Pathak
Central Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University
Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal
Email: dpathaktu@gmail.com

Dinesh Pathak
Central Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University
Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal
Email: dpathaktu@gmail.com

Abstract

This article focuses on the water-induced disaster (landslide and flood) conditions in Nepal. It analyzesThe past and present water-induced disaster conditions in the country haves been analyzed, the importance and means for creation of the database have been explored, identifies data gaps in water induced-disaster mitigation have been identified, explores the importance and means for creation of a database to house and organize data, visualizes the role of citizen scientists in data generation was visualized, and describes the efforts to date of S4W-Nepal there have been signified and described.

Introduction

The Himalayan region represents an active tectonic zone, and about 35% of the Himalayan belt lies in Nepal. The 147,515 km2 territory of Nepal can be divided into three main geographical regions; the Himalayan region covers 15% of the total area, the hilly region covers 68%, and Terai, also known as the food basket of the country covers 17% of the total area. The Himalayan terrain is formed by the complex geological process, which is still continuing to shape the Himalayan region. Such geological activities together with the hydrometeorological process have caused various types of hazards that eventually pose vulnerability to people, infrastructure, and natural resources. Thus, the larger population in the region has been exposed to multi-hazards, like earthquakes, landslides, soil degradation, flood, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and drought. 

Water-borne disasters like landslides, floods, soil erosion are common during the monsoon period in the entire Himalayan region. Snow avalanches are common, and glacial lake outbursts occasionally occur in the Himalayan region. These disasters have a significant impact on the natural system, settlements, and infrastructure in Nepal. In the past decades, climate change has been observed worldwide. For the future, predictions indicate average temperature rise, change in precipitation patterns in space and time, melting glaciers, sea-level rise, etc. with a large band of uncertainty. Likewise, extreme drought, intense rainfall, severe flood events, etc. are also predicted to occur more often under climate change conditions. 

Different aspects of disasters like a landslide, dam outburst flood, the occurrence of landslides due to bank erosion by the river and slope instability, floods, and infrastructure failure causing landslides and floods, etc. are different sorts of water-induced disasters. Himalaya is extremely vulnerable to natural disasters due to its geology, steep slopes, high relief, and monsoon climates and among the different natural disasters, landslides are important geological events in many parts of the world (Pathak, 2016a).

Effect of past water induced disaster in the country 

Water induced disasters (Landslide and flood disaster) have greater and regular impacts among all other disasters, which is evident from the highest mortality (66%) for the period between 1990 and 2014 (Figure 1). 

Figure 1: Disaster mortality in Nepal between 1990 and 2014 (UNISDR, 2015) 

Several events of water-induced disasters have increased the number of deaths, displacement of large numbers of families with damages to thousands of houses. It is quite convincing that these disasters are the major disasters in the country with an eminent impact on the people. Nevertheless, the earthquake disaster has a much greater and long term impact on all sectors of life even though it happens in a longer time interval. Even a single earthquake event can have more death, destruction of houses and infrastructure, as well as greater economic losses than the total due to other disasters in several decades. 

The water induced disaster 

Landslide and debris flow

Landslides are common in all physiographic regions of Nepal, i.e. from the Chure range in the south to the Higher Himalayan region in the north. The analysis of landslide data in different regions of Nepal shows that in general, most of the landslides have occurred in elevation class between 500 m and 2000 m. Physiographically, landslide occurrence is more in Middle Mountain and High Mountain regions. Likewise, the topographic slope is another important factor for the occurrence of landslides, and the slope angle between 20 and 40 degrees is most sensitive for the landslide occurrence. Geologically, most slope instability issues are in Siwalik and Lesser Himalayan regions. Generally, we believe that the vegetation-covered areas are the stable ground; in contrast,  the analysis of the data shows that in most of the cases, landslides occur in the forest area. It indicates that the vegetation is effective to provide ground stability only against the shallow slope failure, while for the deep-seated failure plane, especially below the root zone of the vegetation, large scale landslides may occur with significant damages to the forest land that may impose risks to other elements like settlement, agriculture land, and infrastructure at the downslope. An analysis of landslide vulnerability in eastern Nepal shows that many landslides have increased vulnerability to forest followed by agriculture, settlement, and road (Figure 2). 

Figure 2: Elements at risk due to landslides (number of landslides is at Y-axis)

Google Earth’s image is useful for the rapid assessment of landslides in an area, and it is especially useful in the identification of large and disastrous landslides (Figure 3). Likewise, it is quite helpful to identify the earthquake-induced landslides through comparison between the images before and after an earthquake (Figure 4). Either a new landslide can be developed or the old inactive landslide could be triggered during an earthquake.

Figure 3: Landslide in (a) Okhaldhunga district located at Manebhanjyang Gaupalika; and (b) Sankhuwasabha district at Makalu Gaupalika

Figure 4: Damage to road from earthquake due to triggering of the old landslide as well as the development of a new landslide in Dhading (left image before the earthquake and right image after the earthquake) 

Flood

Flood is a common hazard that sometimes becomes a disastrous event due to its magnitude and presence of a large number of vulnerable elements. Such events are occurring both in the mountainous regions as well as in the Plain area. The rivers flowing through the Kathmandu valley have been heavily stressed due to encroachment as a result of urbanization.  The natural regimes of the rivers are not maintained to the required waterway and also the natural regime of the river is much affected. This is the reason that many regions in the Kathmandu Valley are experiencing flood problems in each monsoon period. The flood hazard map of the Kathmandu Valley shows that both the urban core areas, as well as newly urbanized areas are prone to flood problems (Figure 5).  

Figure 5: Flood hazard map of Kathmandu Valley. The deeper blue color shows deeper water level (Pathak et al., 2009).

Gaps in water induced disaster mitigation 

In order to address the growing vulnerability due to the water-induced disaster, proper understanding of the biophysical, social, and institutional components is required. The water-induced disaster mitigation (WIDM) has been given the prime importance from the government of Nepal, however, a mounting disaster-induced loss indicates that disaster risk reduction is far from getting its due share of attention and resources (Pathak 2016b). Lack of seriousness and accountability of the decision-making authority, unavailability of the adequate database, low priority, and insufficient fund allocation for the disaster related study are some of the issues related to the inefficiency of disaster mitigation. Pathak (2016c) has pointed out some of the important measures to be considered for effective water-induced disaster management, which are listed below:

  • A hazard map is not adequate for planning rather risk map is more useful
  • A comprehensive disaster database will be supportive for disaster management
  • Prioritization of the watershed based on the water-induced disaster will facilitate effective disaster management
  • Regular monitoring and effective early warning system will reduce disaster loss
  • Institutional strengthening with effective coordination and networking among government line agencies 
  • I/NGO should be given appropriate roles to work in coordination with the government in a supportive role. These organizations should work on various sectors as identified and prioritized by the government 
  • Get prepared for the worst

Conclusion

Landslide and debris flow, as well as floods, are the major water-induced disasters in Nepal. There are many stakeholders for effective disaster management, namely government, non-government organization, disaster experts as well as the local residents. The role and activities of those stakeholders are almost defined, however, the role of local residents is least brought to the mainstream of disaster management. Data required for disaster management are available on national, provincial, and district level. However, there is a scarcity of data (like precipitation and flood discharge) at the local level, especially at the community level. These data are required to assess the disaster condition and to develop models required for disaster management. The local residents can be trained and given the responsibility to measure the hydrometeorological data so that a comprehensive database can be formed at the community level. Besides, these citizen scientists can act as valuable messengers to the community regarding community awareness in disaster management. S4W-Nepal has realised the importance of citizen science and its activities are focused to bridge the gap. 

References

Pathak D, 2016a. Knowledge based landslide susceptibility mapping in the Himalayas. Geoenvironmental Disasters (2016) 3:8, DOI 10.1186/s40677-016-0042-0

Pathak D, 2016b. Water Induced Disaster Mitigation from Watershed Management Perspective in Nepal – An Example from Dobhan Khola Watershed, West Nepal. International journal of landslide and environment, vol. 4(1-3), 9-19.

Pathak D, 2016c. Water induced disaster mitigation in Nepal – present approach and way forward for effective water induced disaster mitigation from geological perspective. Disaster Review 2015, pp. 25-30. 

Pathak D, Gajurel AP, Dwivedi SK, Shreshta GB, 2009. Flood risk mapping in urban area using high resolution satellite imageries. Proceedings of international seminar on hazard management for sustainable development, 29-30 Nov, 2009, Kathmandu, Nepal, (organized by Department of Water Induced Disaster Prevention, Nepal Engineering College and Ehime University). Eds. H.K. Shrestha, R. Yatabe and N.P. Bhandary, pp. 233-244.

UNISDR, 2015. Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015: Nepal. UNISDR
Note: ‘Young Researcher’ Issue 3  – Sept 2020

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monsoon in Nepal

Monsoon in Nepal

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Rocky Talchabhadel
Researcher, Kyoto University
Board Member, S4W-Nepal

The word “Monsoon” comes from the Arabic word “mausim” which translates directly to ‘season’ in English. The monsoon season in Nepal and other parts of Central and Southeast Asia is characterized by a large seasonal shift in wind flow and direction accompanied by a dramatic increase in precipitation. Monsoon can be both boon and bane for inhabitants of this region. Extreme (heavy) precipitation during the monsoon season often results in major water-induced hazards such as floods, landslides, and debris flow. However, the monsoon season is equally important for agriculture and the economy. Lower than average monsoon precipitation, or even simply a later than average start date to the monsoon season, can have a disastrous impact on the nearly 3/4th of the population in Nepal that is dependent on agriculture. The nature of the monsoon precipitation – its amount, temporal variability, intensity, frequency of occurrence, and spatial variation is a major factor affecting agricultural potential. In Nepal between 1968 and the present, the average start and end dates for the summer monsoon are June 10th and September 23rd, respectively. Figure 1 shows the start and end dates, and average duration, during this period.

Figure 1: Monsoon onset (blue squares) and withdrawal (orange circles) and average onset and withdrawal (gray shaded area).

The country receives more than 80% of its annual precipitation during the monsoon season (Shrestha, 2000). Rice is a major food staple in Nepal. The planting of rice normally begins in early May in the hills and in June in the Tarai, the country’s food basket. The monsoon precipitation is directly linked with the growth of this rice crop and the country’s agriculture and in turn, the economy. This year (A.D. 2020) monsoon began in Nepal on the 12th of June. The monsoon season is characterized by not continuous but continual rain for a few days separated by rainless intervals. The long term temporal record of monsoon onset and withdrawal (Figure 1) shows a delayed monsoon withdrawal coupled with either altered or unchanged monsoon onset. The monsoon season is, in general, found to be longer in recent times. On average, six or seven monsoon depressions* (twice per month) move in every year, each corresponding to a period of about 17 days (Nayava, 1980). When the monsoon trough (a large depression) moves closer towards the foothills of Nepal (which we call active break-monsoon), heavy precipitation-related extreme events usually occur in parts, or across the whole, of Nepal. During such extreme precipitation events, floods (river floods, flash floods, urban floods) are likely to occur. The timing of flood/inundation and early warning mechanisms are crucial for effective mitigation of flood risks, along with mapping and understanding of flood-prone areas, which are, to some extent, predictable.

However, landslides and debris flow can sometimes even occur in unexpected areas. A recent example of a landslide followed by a debris flow at Kushma municipality, Parbat on June 13, 2020 highlights this point. The terrain, which never experienced a landslide before, experienced this, followed by a debris flow that was a devastating event affecting lives and property. Figure 2 shows a preliminary assessment of cumulative precipitation derived from hourly precipitation data of a satellite-based product, PERSIANN CCS (spatial resolution, 4 km) and the spatial location of landslide/debris flow before and after the event using Planet Imagery (spatial resolution, 3 m). 

Even a single event with intense precipitation for a short period can bring urban inundation, land/mudslides, or flash flooding. Therefore, it is high time to map potential hazards and prepare for worst-case scenarios. You can’t manage what you don’t measure.  Citizen-science based precipitation measurements can be used as a reference to calibrate and correct satellite-based precipitation estimates. Let’s measure.

                       Figure 2: Kushma municipality, Parbat landslide, and resulting debris flow.

Reference:

Nayava JL. 1980. Rainfall in Nepal. The Himalayan Review. Nepal Geological Society, 12.

Shrestha ML. 2000. Interannual variation of summer monsoon rainfall over Nepal and its relation to Southern Oscillation Index. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 75: 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s007030070012.

*Note: Monsoon depression: a depression that forms within the locations of relatively minimum sea level pressure in a monsoon region.

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Sagar Gosai

Meet Sagar Gosai and the Young Researchers’ Circle (YRC)

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Young Researchers’ Circle Announcement & Activities

The Young Researchers’ Circle (YRC) is a voluntary, independent, collaborative, non-profit circle of young researchers/students that was founded in Spring 2020 by S4W-Nepal with an aim to promote and support citizen science-based water resource monitoring and management in the Kathmandu Valley and other parts of Nepal. The motto and objective of YRC is “Rejuvenating research among young aspiring minds” and YRC seeks to accomplish this via events, outreach programs, involvement in S4W-Nepal’s activities, and various networking opportunities.

The current ongoing activities of YRC include participation in S4W-Nepal’s  Monsoon Expedition 2020, publication of a bi-monthly newsletter and a weekly Environmental News Refresher[1], and analysis of S4W-Nepal’s data. YRC plays a crucial role in the Monsoon Expedition in building a strong network of Citizen Scientists throughout the Kathmandu Valley (and other parts of Nepal) and motivates them to get involved in water-related research activities. YRC intends to build a good relationship between different colleges of Nepal, mobilize graduate-level students in water-related research, and help develop their skillset for the design, implementation, completion, and communication of research projects.

To date, YRC has published its first issue of the bimonthly newsletter ‘Young Researchers’ and six issues of the weekly Environment News Refresher. YRC has also conducted two online trainings, one on Open Data Kit (ODK) and one on ArcGIS, for the interested members of Young Researchers’ Circle for building their research skillset. Furthermore, YRC celebrated World Environment Day on June 5th by organizing an article writing competition among YRC members on the topic “Water as a whole to sustain biodiversity”. Finally, YRC has also conducted a video campaign in order to promote and conserve biodiversity.

In the near future, YRC plans to conduct webinars, facilitate managing and supporting conferences/events conducted by water-related organizations, become involved in various research activities and publications,  and more. The YRC initiative has thus far been successful, and these new ideas will hopefully allow for its continued success and growth!

You can find out more about the Young Researchers’ Circle through the S4W-Nepal Facebook page, by contacting S4W-Nepal at: s4w-nepal@smartphones4water.org  or by contacting YRC directly at youngresearcherscircle@gmail.com .

Sagar Gosai

Meet Sagar Gosai

Sagar Gosai has been an active citizen scientist with S4W-Nepal for a long time and recently became vice-secretary of the Young Researchers’ Circle. Let’s hear a little bit from him about his experience as a citizen scientist and with S4W-Nepal.

Citizen Scientist’s Story

Namaste, I am Sagar Gosai. I am a third-year bachelor’s student studying Environmental Science at Khwopa College, Bhaktapur. I am an enthusiastic youth with a keen interest in the field of drinking water quality and its management. I was motivated and inspired to be a citizen scientist and got involved with S4W-Nepal through an outreach program conducted at my college. I have been actively collecting daily precipitation data for more than two years now, and have also been collecting daily evaporation data for the past six months.

S4W-Nepal has developed a low-cost gauge (each costs about $1.50 for materials and construction) to record these measurements, and these gauges are initially made available to citizen scientists by the organization for free. Considering the plastic pollution issues happening both locally and globally, I really appreciate the idea of reusing and repurposing plastic water bottles for measurement as well as the cost-effective data transmission methods through mobile application Open Data Kit (ODK) Collect.  S4W-Nepal has made me aware of the importance of data collection and also helped me develop the capability to easily communicate with other fellow citizen scientists and local people about the data collection procedures and the importance of the data. I am very happy to be a part of S4W-Nepal and excited and eager to know how the data collected are being used in making wise water resource management decisions.

[1] The weekly Environmental News Refresher provides an overview of local, national, and international environmental news stories with some commentary.

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Citizen Scientists in Action Amidst COVID-19

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The current COVID-19 pandemic and global shutdown have brought massive distress to the world in various ways. In our present situation, many people are unable to go to work, (or worse) have lost their jobs, children can’t go to school, and people are no longer allowed to freely socialize. On a global level, economy has drastically shrunk; on a personal level, some people are suffering mental breakdowns, and more. Everything is in chaos. Despite the prolonged health and socio-economic crisis, the lockdown has strangely enough presented an opportunity in some areas of science. People’s engagement in citizen science projects, resulting from more time away from others or at home, has been one of the small silver linings and unique opportunities of the pandemic for the scientific community.

Over the past couple of years, the term ‘citizen science’ has become much more common. The approach of citizen science – where ordinary citizens and scientists work together in scientific endeavors – generates new scientific knowledge and has the potential to collect valuable scientific data on a large scale. Citizen scientists can accomplish work on a scale that would be impossible for only trained scientists to achieve. Despite the pandemic situation, worldwide, numerous researchers have started scientific collaborations online, engaging citizens to participate in various citizen science projects. The projects range from recording species/biodiversity observed in our own backyards to bird counts to monitoring precipitation through rain gauges to studying outer space, all leading to new scientific discoveries and better understanding of the world (or galaxy!) we live in.

Initiatives by Smartphones4Water Nepal (S4W-Nepal)

Here at S4W-Nepal, we have been practicing and implementing this citizen science approach for the past three years for hydro-meteorological data collection. One of the programs of S4W-Nepal that we’ve implemented every year since our establishment is the Monsoon Expedition to track rainfall in Nepal during the summer monsoon. In the 2020 Monsoon Expedition, we aim to generate consistent, accurate rainfall data and provide the gathered information to the interested stakeholders. Our objective for this year was to expand our research outside of the Kathmandu Valley, with a focus on Kathmandu, Pokhara, Hetauda, Dharan, Biratnagar, and Chitwan. However, due to strict lockdown measures and travel restrictions, we were unable to conduct and facilitate the outreaches and programs that we had planned. Our detailed plan for the monsoon expedition 2020 and our past approaches are briefly explained here.

Amidst the pandemic, we were still able to recruit about 50 citizen scientists through social media platforms, and our citizen scientists took the responsibility to make their rain gauge to track the rainfall in their area. We provided them with instructions on rain gauge construction, data collection, and data submission along with follow up messages and calls on a timely basis. We also encourage questions and provide prompt feedback and responses to any queries from citizen scientists.

Figure 1: Citizen Scientists in Action – rain gauge preparation and rainfall monitoring by two S4W-Nepal volunteers. 
Figure 2: Precipitation stations all across Nepal with a major focus on the Kathmandu Valley from June 2020.

The driving factors for the involvement of citizen scientists in scientific projects include motivation to create a positive impact, time availability, personal or professional interest, and even boredom for those with lots of free time. To be a citizen scientist for S4W-Nepal, all you need is a smartphone with GPS capabilities and a camera and a bit of enthusiasm.

When the global situation normalizes in the post-pandemic period, will the popularity of citizen science and the number of projects gradually decline, or will it continue to grow? It is a worldwide concern for scientists, and we don’t know the answer. However, with the continuing emergence of new technologies and concepts, the wave of citizen science has also continued to rise in Nepal with constant support from several NGOs, INGOs, research institutions, and government. As a consequence, open knowledge sharing platforms between citizen scientists, scientific communities, experts, governmental bodies, and policymakers are continuing to develop and we hope that they will reach new heights shortly. We are excited to be a part of the process and along for the ride, and we hope you’ll consider joining us as a citizen scientist!

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